Purified Water vs Spring Water

As the overall safety of the public water supply is under scrutiny thanks to a recent Associated Press study that uncovered some disturbing contaminants, many consumers are likely finding themselves wondering if bottled water is better. For many, the facts about bottled water will make this the clear choice. The problem lies in deciding what kind of bottled water to select. Understanding the differences between purified water and spring water can guide consumers in the right direction.

While there are some distinct differences between purified and spring water, many find the overall benefits of bottled water in general make this option a smart one. The extra processing that most bottled waters are subjected to can help remove impurities that slip through the public water supply's treatment and testing programs.

Basic Bottled Water Facts Consumers Should Know

Bottled water undergoes a great deal more regulation and scrutiny than many consumers realize. While it is not regulated by the same agency that oversees the public water supply - the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - it does receive government oversight. In the case of bottled water, the agency that insures strict standards are adhered to is the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Many states also add their own layers of protection in regard to regulation.

The FDA itself puts rather high standards on bottled water produced within and/or sold within the United States. This agency demands that suppliers of bottled water, purified, spring or otherwise do the following things:

Meet FDA standards - Bottled water companies must meet the FDA's requirements for safety, quality and inspection. These are required in exchange for being able to sell products on the US consumer market. These standards, by law, are as strict as or stricter than those set by the EPA for public water systems.
Properly label their products - The FDA demands, for example, that bottled water companies that use tap water without further processing clearly state so on their labels.
Beyond FDA regulations, many of America's bottled water suppliers are members of the International Bottled Water Association. This voluntary, industry association holds its members to stricter standards than the federal government and even state governments. The IBWA demands that its members:

Adhere to safety and quality standards - The IBWA goes above and beyond FDA and EPA standards in this regard.
Subject themselves to annual, unannounced inspections - These are performed to make sure that IBWA members are meeting the strict regulations the association places on its membership.
Bottled water sometimes comes from the same sources as public water. In fact, many suppliers of bottled water start out with the tap and then further process to create their own distinct brand. Some, however, do not.

Understanding Spring Water

While spring water and purified water can come from exactly the same underground sources, the treatment processes that are involved in the two varieties can vary rather greatly. In general, spring water must come from protected, pure underground sources to carry this moniker.

According to the IBWA, spring water that is bottled must come from an underground source that has natural water flow to the earth's surface. The water itself must be gathered from the spring or from a borehole that taps into an underground formation. To earn the title of spring water, the collected water itself must carry all the same properties prior to treatment that the spring contains.

Spring water is subjected to the same FDA and IBWA standards that other forms of bottled water must adhere to. This means that it must be tested for quality and that some form of treatment is generally called for to insure safety and purity.

The Purified Water Difference

Depending on the supplier in question, purified bottled water might actually come from the exact same source as spring water. This, however, is where the two varieties differ.

To earn the name "purified," water must undergo one or more specialized treatment processes, according to the IBWA. The options include distillation, reverse osmosis, deionization and so on. Purified water, in essence, is highly treated drinking water that does not contain the chemical compounds found in the public water supply. Chlorine aftertastes, for example, will not be found within purified water.

Distilled Oxygenated Water Is Purified At Its Best

Distilled oxygenated water is one form of purified water that is gaining a lot of attention. To create this particular product, the source water is distilled for purification purposes. This step in the process removes impurities and insures that FDA and IBWA standards are met or exceeded. The oxygenation process itself requires the infusion of oxygen molecules into the end product. The final result is a water product that is clean, crisp tasting and adherent to FDA and IBWA standards. Many find purified bottled water is the superior choice when safety and flavor both matter.

Making the decision to purchase spring water versus purified water often comes down to personal choice. Many people prefer the taste and the added security that purified bottled water can deliver. The reality is many forms of distilled and spring water come from the exact same source. In the case of purified water, however, the extra treatment measures can deliver peace of mind and an excellent flavor both.

Jon M. Stout is Chairman of the Board of Element H2O an Ultra Pure bottled water company located in Chantilly, Virginia. For more information about bottled water, private label bottled water [http://www.elementh2o.com/Store] and bottled water delivery [http://www.elementh2o.com/local] go to the Element H2O website.

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The Many Advantages Of Purified Bottled Water

With concerns about contaminants in the public water supply running high, many people are turning to bottled water to alleviate fears. Purified bottled water is one choice that some people are discovering offers some distinct advantages. This type of bottled water is a little different than others.

Why Public Water Is A Concern

The public water supply has long been a source of worry for governmental agencies and consumers alike. Water systems can sometimes fail and when they do the consequences can be dire. Beyond impurities, public water systems are also subject to backflow contamination and other points of breach.

While the public water supply is subject to tight regulations, problems still exist. Examples of system failures abound. Perhaps the most notable study in recent years involves the Associated Press five-month investigation into the public drinking water supply and potential medicinal contamination. The study's results are rather eye opening.

According to the AP, some 41 million Americans are impacted by drinking water that shows some form of pharmaceutical contamination. In some water systems, more than 50 different medications were found in trace amounts in the supply.

While public health officials say the levels of medicine found in the AP's study are well below concern levels, not all experts are convinced. Scientists and physicians are unclear of what the long-term effects of drinking pharmaceutical laden water will prove to be.

Beyond the AP's study, the potential for contamination in the public drinking water supply has long been known. To protect against it, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency requires suppliers to test for more than 90 different substances. These substances range from highly dangerous e. coli and heavy metals to nitrates and beyond. While the EPA demands strict testing procedures, the fact is some water systems fail and the problems are not detected until the water has been released for general consumption.

Bottled Water Offers An Advantage

Bottled water in and of itself is often seen as a superior choice for drinking over tap water. Bottled water suppliers are subject to many regulations that meet or exceed those set by the EPA although they are enforced by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration instead.

The distinct advantages of bottled water versus tap are found in the extra layer of processing that many bottled water products are subjected to. Thanks to FDA guidelines, bottled water suppliers that do not treat their source water are required to state so clearly on their labels.

While it's true that many bottled water companies do get their water from the tap, they take the cleansing and treating processes farther. This means that consumers are generally receiving products that are cleaner and safer than the public supply can afford. Plus, backflow issues do not come into play. Backflow occurs when water pumped out of the public water supply is suddenly sucked back in. Cross-contamination with tanker trucks, swimming pools and other similar depositories can and does happen thanks to this phenomenon.

In addition to the more obvious advantages bottled water provides, there are other benefits that can come along with making this choice. Many bottled water providers, for example, are voluntary members of an organization call the International Bottled Water Association. Members of this group subject themselves to stricter standards than the federal government demands in regard to purity and safety. To retain membership, suppliers must agree to surprise annual inspection of their plants and they must agree to further testing than the law calls for.

In general, bottled water is the superior choice. The purified variety, however, can give consumers a greater peace of mind.

Why Purified Is Different

Purified bottled water undergoes a slightly different treatment process than most other types of bottled water and especially tap water. To earn the title "purified," water must be treated through reverse osmosis, distillation or another similar, advanced means of purification. Purified bottled water might start out from the tap or come directly from a spring or other natural source, but it is processed in such a manner that makes it distinctly different than other choices.

Purified oxygenated bottled water is further treated by the infusion of oxygen molecules after the distillation process removes contaminants. The end result of the purified oxygenated water creation process is a product that is cleaner, safer and quite often better tasting than other waters.

Many experts consider purification through a steam distillation/oxygenation process to be the most effective.

The Advantages Of Purified

Purified bottled water can deliver some advantages that other forms of bottled water and especially tap water cannot. They include:

A greater degree of contamination removal - The extra steps taken to create purified bottled water deliver peace of mind along with this type of product.
Better taste - Many find the chemical free, oxygen infused taste of purified oxygenated bottled water is simply better than tap and other bottled waters.
Less guesswork - The fact is public water can often be a crapshoot. Thanks to the complexity of the delivery systems and the potential of backflow contamination, tap water drinkers are almost never sure what they are getting. While contaminations are few and far between, they can and do happen.
Purified bottled water delivers advantages that other sources of drinking water cannot deliver. When a clean taste, purity and safety are desired, this type of water fits the bill.

Jon M. Stout is Chairman of the Board of Element H2O an Ultra Pure bottled water company located in Chantilly, Virginia. For more information about bottled water, private label bottled water [http://www.elementh2o.com/Store/] and bottled water delivery [http://www.elementh2o.com/local/] go to the Element H2O website.

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Is Bottled Water Better Than Tap Water?

As more studies come to light that bring the long-term safety of tap water into question, many people find themselves wondering if bottled water is the better choice for consumption, cooking, tooth brushing and more. When the facts about bottled water and tap water are presented, many people make the decision to go bottled. While tap water can and often is technically safe according to government standards, the trace substances found within can be of grave concern.

Concerns About Tap Water

The safety of tap water has long been a major concern for government agencies and the general public, as well. The potential pollutants that can find their way into the public water supply are quite extensive.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency requires public water suppliers to test for more than 90 different types of contaminants. Despite the rigorous testing procedures that are in place in most jurisdictions, many public water supplies fail - in some cases, multiple times.

The Hillsborough County Water Department, since renamed Water Resource Services, suffered from multiple system failures in the early 2000s. This seemingly well regulated water supplier, serving the Tampa Bay area, suffered from repeated coliform contaminations and even an e. coli scare. This system is not alone in its failure to meet federal regulations despite the use of chloramines and other chemicals that are designed to remove potential hazards from potable water.

While the EPA does require extensive testing and requires each public water supplier to provide full disclosure in the form of an annual report to water users, government regulations do not cover every eventuality. This was made quite evident thanks to a recent Associated Press study that revealed the presence of pharmaceuticals in the public water supply in jurisdictions all over the United States. The investigation turned up evidence that shows some 41 million Americans might be impacted by medications found within their water.

The five-month study focused on water systems throughout the United States and found contamination - including antibiotics, anticonvulsants and more - in some 24 different metro areas. While the medications were found in trace amounts, the long-term impacts of consuming the water are unclear, the AP reported.

The medications themselves are thought to enter into the public water supplies via natural human elimination. Toilet water, which would contain traces of medication, is flushed and sent to wastewater treatment facilities. From here, treated wastewater is released back into the environment. Eventually, that same water ends up back in rivers, reservoirs, lakes and aquifers, which are the sources of public drinking water.

While the public water supply is well regulated and the water does undergo a great deal of treatment, systems are subject to failure. The long-term impacts of such failures remain unclear.

The Bottled Water Difference

Bottled water offers a distinct difference over tap water in a number of cases. While it's true that some bottled waters do come from the public water supply, many factors can make it distinctly unique and even a great deal safer.

According to the International Bottled Water Association, there are a number of things that make bottled water the better choice. Even in regard to the trace medicines found in tap water, Dr. Stephen Edberg of Yale's School of Medicine says that bottled water undergoes processes that are quite effective in protecting against the substances the AP reported finding in tap water.

Some of the measures that can help make bottled water stand out above tap include:

Regulations - Just like tap water, bottled water is regulated by government agencies. While tap is overseen by the EPA, bottled water is regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. This organization requires that bottled water manufacturers adhere to the FDA's inspection, labeling, safety and quality requirements.

Extra treatment - Most bottled water products undergo further treatments beyond what the public water supply is subjected to. Treatment can include reverse osmosis, filtration, distillation and more, depending on the particular supplier and the type of water in question.

Labeling laws - Companies that do not choose to further treat their bottled water beyond what public water suppliers perform are required by the FDA to clearly say so in their labels.

IBWA standards - Companies that belong to the International Bottled Water Association must adhere to strict standards that go beyond what the federal government requires. Members are subjected to plant inspections once a year that help insure that standards are being met.
While bottled water can start out the same as tap, it often undergoes further treatment that is designed to make it the safer choice.

Purified Is Often The Best

If concerns about contaminants in the public water supply are high, purified bottled water is often one of the best choices to make for drinking and more. This type of bottled water is more heavily treated. The distillation process that is required to create distilled oxygenated water, for example, is designed to remove impurities and create a cleaner, safer source of drinking water.

Answering the question of which is better bottled or tap often comes down to personal choice in regard to taste. If cleaner, safer water is desired, however, the facts about bottled make the answer quite clear. Thanks to the extra treatments many bottled waters are subjected to, this option stands out against the competition.

Jon M. Stout is Chairman of the Board of Element H2O an Ultra Pure bottled water company located in Chantilly, Virginia. For more information about bottled water, private label bottled water [http://www.elementh2o.com/Store] and bottled water delivery [http://www.elementh2o.com/local] go to the Element H2O website.

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The Real Truth About Bottled Water, Purified Water and Tap Water

There has been substantial information and misinformation about bottled water and its value and beneficial effects. Many people and organizations have joined the argument and the pros and cons have been widely discussed. As a result there has been a significant amount of disinformation distributed and discussed.

In any event, bottled water is a multi billion dollar business and is hugely popular. And, the demand for bottled alternatives keeps increasing as the population at large adopts a healthier life style.

It is best to begin with a technical definition of "Purity". Purity is often represented numerically by "Total Dissolved Solids", or "TDS", which measures the concentration of soluble impurities . TDS is measured in terms of parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/l). The EPA stipulates that tap water should have no more than 500 ppm of impurities (of all kinds) . Why is this level not 0 ppm?

Types of Water

There are two types consumed in the United States today: Municipal (also know as tap water) and bottled (including spring , filtered and purified water. The conclusion of this article is this: ALL TAP AND MOST BOTTLED WATER IS UNHEALTHY. Purified water is the only one that is truly safe to drink.

Here is the proof:

Tap Water - Tap is water provided by municipalities to a large portion of the population and most people are familiar with those types.

In the Northern Virginia - Washington Region, almost all tap water comes from surface sources like the Potomac and the Occoquan Reservoir, which is fed by the Occoquan River, both of which are polluted. The source supply is processed using basic filtration techniques like sand filtration (filters out large chucks of waste and other organic materials ), flocculation (chemicals added to get smaller particles to coagulate and float so they can be removed) and finally, chlorine is added to kill bacteria and micro-organisms.

In most cases, tap is considered potable (drinkable) according to EPA standards. The use of chlorine is widespread and most people object to the smell and taste of the water when chlorine is present.

Just Exactly What Are EPA Standards?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the regulatory body responsible for setting standards of quality of tap water. The EPA does not ensure purity , only that the water meets standards (meaning pollutants and harmful substances are allowed). Most municipalities issue yearly glowing reports about meeting EPA Standards but these standards are arbitrary, not supported by scientific testing and actually are an easy way for municipalities to produce unhealthy drinking water.

An example of the fallacy of EPA Standards is reflected in recent legislation proposed by Senator Hillary Clinton (D. NY) and others that would force the EPA to revise standards to protect New Yorkers against TCE, a carcinogenic chemical blamed for pollution of Long Island water. Senator Clinton concluded that regarding the EPA: "It is unacceptable that the EPA has failed to protect the public from TCE in the face of stronger scientific evidence that it causes cancer, and growing exposure problems in New York and across the country...As a result of EPA delays, communities across New York continue to be exposed to potentially toxic levels of TCE." The conclusion that one can draw from this legislation is that EPA protection of our drinking water is doubtful at best.

Standards allow certain "minimums" of harmful chemicals and contaminants in tap water. What is the difference between a little poison absorbed in your body continuously or a lot of poison absorbed in a short time? It can be argued that both are detrimental to your health.

Many other questions arise about tap as well. How much poison can the human body take and how did the EPA determine how much contamination is allowable and safe? What test protocols did the EPA use and how was testing conducted? What about people with challenged immune systems?

These questions and many more remain unanswered.

Is Municipal (Tap) Really Safe?

Glowing municipal reports notwithstanding, tap water can be harmful to your health for a number of reasons:

· Chlorine is not particularly good for your body - it has been linked to a variety of cancers - but it does kill some microorganisms that can make you violently ill.

· A recent study by the Associated Press revealed that pharmaceuticals are present in a large number of municipal supplies across the nation. Some municipalities do not test for pharmaceuticals or do not release the results of tests.

· There is a problem with heavy metals in municipal systems. Highly toxic metals like lead (particularly harmful to young children) and copper are found in many municipal systems because of the pipes used in homes and these heavy metals enter the water after it leaves the filtration plant. Washington. D.C. for example has been cited for excessive amounts of lead in the municipal supply.

· A recent outbreak of Salmonella poisoning in Colorado was traced to contamination of the municipal supply.

· Micro-organisms like cryptosporidium has been found in and tested for in many municipal supplies and an outbreak of the disease caused by cryptosporidium in Wisconsin was traced to contaminated municipal supplies.

· Many municipalities include fluoridation and the long term effects of fluoride is a controversial subject. Fluoride is a chemical that hardens teeth and prevents tooth decay but the best application of fluoride is in the dentist's office - not in the public drinking water supply.

The TDS of Washington , DC tap water ranges from 200 ppm to 400+ ppm and the range depends on many factors including the temperature of the river, the flow of the river, runoff, time of year (fertilizing lawns, etc.) and many others. So, the tap supply is constantly changing in quality - a fact that most people never know and municipal suppliers never reveal.

In terms of health, tap water adds little value besides low cost.

Bottled Water

Most bottled water is no safer than tap water and a good deal more expensive. Types of Bottled products are Spring , filtered and purified water with purified being the highest quality.

Spring Water

Spring water is the subject of marketing spin and many popular misconceptions. Many of those misconceptions are promoted through less than accurate advertising pitches.

Many people for example believe that spring water is actually "pure". On the contrary, spring waters contain many of the same impurities found in drilled wells or even tap water.

A fact about spring water is that it is highly affected by ground water pollution from animals and industrial waste runoff.

But is spring water "100% pure" as many spring water companies advertise? The fact is that the "100% pure" refers not to the absence of impurities in the water, but to the source of the water itself. That is, 100% of the water in the bottle came from an underground source (i.e. a spring), rather than from surface water. These cleverly worded phrases may be legally permissible, but many people find them to be misleading and unethical.

And contamination of springs that furnish the water is more common than not. Ground water contamination from animal waste can affect spring water and industrial pollutants like benzene, perchlorinate and MTBE are commonly found in Spring Water. Benzene is a carcinogen by product of oil refining, perchlorinate is used in rocket fuel and is highly toxic even in small amounts and MTBE is used in gasoline to improve performance and leaches into the water supply form abandoned underground fuel tanks.

In 2004 The E.I. DuPont Co, was assessed over $300 million in fines and penalties for the release of Teflon related chemicals in the Ohio River thus causing pollution of nearby springs and wells. The penalty included a requirement for the supply of large amounts of bottled drinking water.

Spring water advertising is all about images - images of the mountains, streams and wildlife. Reality is quite different.

Spring water is usually not bottled at the source but is usually chlorinated and trucked to the bottling plant. At this point it is basically the same as chlorinated tap water and contaminants remain because the filtration process only filters and doesn't purify.

Filtered Water

This is a product that is mass marketed at retail outlets. Typically, the source of the water is municipal tap water. That water is then run through carbon filters to remove the chlorine odor and taste before being bottled.

It's basically tap water without the chlorine. In terms of quality, it's really not much different than many spring waters. It comes from a "natural" source, goes through minimal filtration, and is then bottled and shipped to market.

Purified Water

Purified water represents the fastest growing segment of the bottled water industry mainly because it's purer than other types of waters. There is a definite health trend today toward healthy living and many health conscious consumers buy because they want something that's of a higher quality and purity than other options like tap water.

To meet the legal definition of "purified water", impurities must be removed to meet the U.S. Pharmacopeia definition (99.9% pure) adopted by the Food and Drug Administration.

The water must be tested and the results made available to the public. Any reputable purified bottled supplier will produce testing reports upon request. The most effective process for purification is a steam distillation/oxygenation process that creates pure, good tasting water.

Purified water is often confused with filtered water. While both types are subject to some sort of filtration (as is almost every spring water), purified water is purified through additional purification processes, typically, distillation. The resultant product, "purified" water, is of significantly higher purity than either spring , tap or filtered water.

Consider the Product not the Source

Purified water may originate from either a spring or surface or groundwater source or directly from the tap. The source of the water doesn't matter-it is the purification process that counts. Since, the purification process is designed to remove virtually all types of impurities; the quality of the source water has little or no impact on the quality of the final purified product.

The steam distillation process of purification will consistently produce extremely high purity water, regardless of fluctuations in the source water's quality. This is not true of spring , tap or filtered water. For this reason, purified water is viewed as the standard against which the purity of other waters is judged.

If you're buying water for higher quality and higher purity reasons, then purified water is your best choice. Tap and most bottled water are the products of hype and spinning of the facts. Investigate before you drink.

Jon M. Stout is Chairman of the Board of Element H2O. For more information about bottled water, purified drinking water and bottled water delivery [http://www.elementh2o.com/local] go to http://www.elementh2o.com

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Water And Your Health - Debunking The 12 Common Myths About Water!

In Part 1 of this series, we discussed why water is so important to our health as well as debunked the first two myths of water. In this follow-up article, we focus on the next 10 myths of water we were brought up with.

Myth No 3 - When in doubt, buy bottled water!

Despite the high standard of production of almost everything in many developed countries, it is interesting to note that few developed countries have a standard for bottled water. In the US and Europe, bottled water have been found to be actually tap water and some contains cancer causing agents. Do a search using the keywords, "Cancer bottled water" in Google and you will see amazing reports of bottled water which contains high level of cancer causing agents. So the US and Europe are two of the most developed regions in the world and yet they do not have a standard for bottled water. If you, like me are living in Asia, can you imagine where most of our bottled water is coming from? Countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. Can you imagine what kind of manufacturing standards these countries will have for their water?

Myth No 4 - Drink when you are thirsty!

There is an old saying that goes,"Listen to your body!". Others like "Eat when you are hungry", "Sleep when you are sleepy" seems to hold true, so does "Drink when you are thirsty" applies? Well, the correct answer here is a firm, "No". You see, water is much like oxygen or fuel for your car. You don't breathe only when you need oxygen. You don't top up your car only when it has run out of fuel? Your body needs to be hydrated all the time. The moment it is a little bit short of water, the body goes into a conservation mode. It uses less and the body becomes less efficient. Your blood thickens, your kidney becomes less effective and your whole body functions at less than 100%. Some symptoms of insufficient water do not even manifest themselves as thirst. For example, many times when you have a headache, it is a sign of de-hydration, but you do not feel thirsty. So, Water should be drunk on a regular basis instead only when you feel thirsty!

Myth No 5 - Too much water makes your body retain water and makes you fat!

As mentioned in Myth No 4, your body has a self regulating mechanism. When your body does not have enough water, it goes into conservation mode. Your body actually retains water. So the more water you drink, the less it retains!

Myth No 6 - Chlorinated water is clean water

While chlorine has been known to kill many germs and bacteria, chlorine itself is a poison. In fact, chlorine is a bleaching agent and that is why many swimmers have bleached hair when they swim in a pool daily. Laboratory test have shown strong associations between drinking chlorinated water and many forms of rectal, colon and bladder cancer. Chlorine is also a gas and not easily removed by boiling. In fact, laboratory tests have also shown that water needs to be boiled for at least 40mins before they can be removed.

Myth No 7 - Boiling water is good as it kills bacteria and germs

Boiling Water does kill many forms of Germs and Bacteria. However, boiling chlorinated water and water with impurities and in-organic substances in it can change the chemical composition of these substances causing some of them to become carcinogenic. The human body is also known to absorb a lot of oxygen from the fluids it take in and boiling water actually drives out a good amount of oxygen from the water. While this itself is not harmful as we do breathe in substantial amount of oxygen in our normal process of inhalation, why drive out something that is good? Cool water (room temperature) is also absorbed better and faster by the body than warm water.

Myth No 8 - Ice cold Beer is a great thirst quencher!

Beer contains alcohol and while an ice-cold beer will certainly feel good on a hot day and after some heavy activity, alcohol actually draws fluid out from the blood streams via a process called osmosis.

Myth No 9 - There is no difference between Aerated Water and Still Water other than the fact that it is Aerated!

In Myth No 7, we discussed about boiling water and driving oxygen out of water. Aerated water is even worse than that. Aerated water is actually water filled with Carbon Dioxide. Most of us know that Carbon Dioxide is what our body expels when we exhale. CO2 are considered to be "Toxins" and not usable by the body. Why in the world would we want to put these back into the body?

Myth No 10 - Wine contains anti-oxidant and is good for you

While it is true that wine contains anti-oxidant and anti-oxidant is generally good for you, it does not necessarily mean that Wine is good for you. Like all things, too much of a good thing can be bad. This "excuse" was probably coined up by wine lovers as a justification to drink more! If the Anti-Oxidants in wine is good for you, why not go to the source and eat grapes instead?

Myth No 11 - I filter my water with one of those portable filters, so it must be clean enough!

Not all filters are made equal. In fact, if you have a filter that is portable, it probably is not good enough. The other tell-tale sign that your filter is not good enough is when Water flows through it easily. A good filter has to filter out particles as small as 0.0001 micron and the only filter that can do this in the world is a filter utilizing a process call Reverse Osmosis. The filter pores are so small that water will not flow through without some force pushing it across. Reverse Osmosis uses a pump to "push" the water against a membrane so that it flows through it leaving the impurities behind. The pores are so small that even bacteria and germs will not go through it.

If you cannot find a good RO filter, the other option is to use a water distiller. Nature has its own way of distillation via evaporation and rainfall. However, in today's industrialised world, the air is so polluted that when the rain falls back to earth, it would have absorbed back a good amount of impurities; hence the term "acid rain". Distillation is a slow process but it produces some of the cleanest water around, on par with those of Reverse Osmosis.

Myth No 12 - Alkaline Water is best for the body!

This myth must have been developed from the Alkaline Diet concept which is highly popular. While it is true that our body should be maintained in a slightly alkaline state to be healthy, it does not necessarily mean that all foods which are alkaline are good! Also some acidic food does leave behind an "alkaline ash" that is beneficial for the body eg lemon and lime.

There are also two major parts of our body that must remain acidic for us to be healthy. One is the skin and the other is the stomach. The stomach has acidic digestive juices which help in breaking down food and digestion. Drinking too much water during food intake actually dilutes the digestive juices and lessen the effectiveness of the digestive process. Drinking alkaline water not only dilutes the digestive acides, it neutralises them as well. For this reason, pure water should have a neutral pH of 7 and it was always recommended to drink water at least half and hour before a meal rather than during a meal. Drinking water half an hour before eating has several advantages. It keeps your stomach full so you do not over-eat. It also does not dilute the digestive juices as much as drinking while eating does.

Can you over drink? I've read a few cases of it. Overdosage of water is called Hyponatremia and can cause complications although this is rare. Water can flush out toxins from the body but when you overdo it, it can also flush out useful minerals. However, unless you go on long durations of water fasting, this should not be a major concern.

So there you go, 12 myths of water and hydration that we hear all the time. How much water do we need? The rule of thumb is that an average person needs about eight 8oz glasses of water per day. For every 25 pounds overweight, an extra glass will have to be added. The above recommendation is only for a normal lifestyle. However, if you are active and into sports, you'll need to drink a lot more. Let's drink to our health!

C.H. Seet is the author of the blog, Ezinspirations (http://www.ezinspirations.com/blog). He has a Bachelors degree in Electrical Engineering and a Masters in Business Administration and has a successful career spanning more than 2 decades. C.H. started as a Sales Engineer in Hewlett Packard and then moved on to become Product Marketing Manager in Rockwell Automation. He now heads a German Multi-National Company, located in Singapore and overlooks the whole SE Asian region.

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The Miracle of Bio-Magnetic Water

What is Bio-Magnetic Water?

Water is paramagnetic - meaning that it will hold a magnetic charge. In nature, the earth's magnetic field naturally charges water in lakes, wells, and running streams. However, as water passes through treatment plants and is transported through pipes to your home or work place, it loses its magnetic charge. Treating water with magnetic fields simple restores the natural energy and balance that nature intended. Magnetized water has more hydroxyl (OH-) ions that form alkaline molecules which reduces the acidity. Normal tap water has a pH of about 7. Magnetized water is more alkaline and can have a pH as high as 9.2. Magnetizing water reduces the surface tension of the water making it feel softer. It is thinner, wetter, and more absorb able, so it is better able to penetrate cell walls and deliver the nutrients that it carries.

Health Benefits

Your body is over 70% water. All biological functions including circulation, digestion, absorption, and excretion depend on water. Water is required for blood, the lymphatic system, and healthy skin and muscles. It is well known among health professionals that when you are sick, the pH of your body is more acidic. Magnetized water, which is more alkaline, raises the pH of your body, which allows the body to get rid of the toxins. Bio-magnetized water is believed to be energy-building, activating, cleansing, and detoxifying. People have reported resolving bladder problems, recovering quickly from a stroke, alleviating arthritis pain, reducing blood pressure, and breaking up kidney and gall stones by drinking magnetic water. Scientific studies have proven that magnetized water has health benefits for animals. Therefore it seems reasonable that it should also be beneficial for humans. Reported health benefits of drinking magnetic water include:

o Magnetic water tastes sweeter and has more clarity.

o Magnetic water reduces acidity in the body and promotes a more alkaline pH.

o Magnetic water promotes healing of wounds and burns.

o Magnetic water has a therapeutic effect of digestive, nervous, and urinary systems.

o Magnetic water can be beneficial for asthma, fevers, colds, coughs, bronchitis, and sore throats.

o Magnetic water can be beneficial for menstrual and menopause discomfort.

o Magnetic water revitalized the body.

o Magnetic water has a positive effect on the autonomic nervous system.

o Magnetic water can help regulate the heart function and clear clogged arteries.

o Magnetic water is beneficial for kidney ailments (removal and prevention of stones), gout, obesity (it improves metabolic activity), and premature aging.

o Magnetic water helps relieve pain.

o Magnetic water infuses energy into the body, controls bacteria, and stimulates brain function.

o Magnetic water can help dissipate toxic deposits in the body's connective tissue.

o Magnetic water can regulate blood pressure (high or low).

o Magnetic water can be used to wash and disinfect external cuts and scrapes.

o Magnetic water will remove the plaque on your teeth if you use it to brush your teeth, rinse your mouth, and drink.

o Magnetic water will make your hair softer and more manageable while using less shampoo when used to wash your hair.

o Magnetic water is ionic so it helps reset the charge on cell walls, thus promoting better circulation.

Pets

Your pets will enjoy many of the same benefits from bio-magnetic water that you do. They will drink more water, have more energy, and feel younger and healthier. A friend was giving her dogs magnetic water. When she moved, she temporarily had to give them tap water. After a few days, they began scratching all the time. When she started them back on bio-magnetic water, the scratching stopped almost completely.

Plants

Bio-Magnetized water will help your plants grow stronger, greener, and larger. In one study seedlings' germination rates were 68 % with bio-magnetized water, while with non-magnetized water only 8% germinated. In another study, Texas A&M researchers found that squash weighed 24% more when it was grown with magnetized water vs. non-magnetized water. Bio-magnetic water is more solvent and has a lower surface tension, so nutrients in the water are absorbed more readily. Thus you get a healthier plant while using less fertilizer.

Other Fluids & Uses

Almost any fluid can be magnetized. Using Bio-Magnetic Water will drastically improve the taste of coffee, tea, and foods. Foods and beverages made using magnetic water will acquire the same healing powers as bio-magnetic water. Cosmetics, facial and skin products function a lot better when magnetized. Magnetized milk will give vigor and vitality to the weak and exhausted person. Magnetized milk has been proven useful for recuperating and enhancing sexual power. When fruit juices are treated with bio-magnets, they become more refreshing and give more nourishment. Beer can be magnetized to give better effect. Magnetized olive oil can be very rewarding in the treatment of gout and rheumatism.

Use bio-magnetic water to make your coffee and after a month or two the inside of your coffee maker will look like new. The bio-magnetic water will remove the scale build-up in your coffee maker.

How to make Bio-Magnetic Water

Making Bio-magnetic water is quite simple: just place a glass or container filled with water on a magnetic pad. Never use a metal container. You want to use a container that has a flat bottom without any raised edges. You want the bottom of the container touching the magnet pad. How long you need to leave the water on the magnet will depend on how much water you have. I usually use a gallon milk container and leave it on the pad for 4-6 hours or longer. It won't hurt to leave it there longer, you can even just leave the container on the pad and refill it as you use the water. The water will stay magnetized for several days after you take it off the magnet.

Summary

There is a long history of the use of magnets to improve the quality and health benefits of water. Many countries have been using magnetic water for patients with digestive, urinary, and nervous problems, for pain, swelling, and many other ailments. Whether all of the claims are true or false remains to be tested by science. However, Magnetic Therapy has been accepted by many for the relief of pain. It is now accepted that each of our cells possess a small magnetic field and that water can be magnetized. Then, the logical conclusion is that magnetic water has the ability to affect our cells and help our body perform as it was meant. There is much evidence that bio-magnetic water is beneficial and none that it can be harmful.

Visit our website for more information about Bio-Magnetic Therapy and Bio-Magnetic water.

Janet Forsythe of Forsythe & Associates is a scientist and has been involved in alternative, natural therapy for many years. Our web site http://www.bio-magnetictherapy.com deals with Magnetic Therapy Products and has several articles about the subject.

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What is Bio-Magnetic Water?

Water is paramagnetic - meaning that it will hold a magnetic charge. In nature, the earth's magnetic field naturally charges water in lakes, wells, and running streams. However, as water passes through treatment plants and is transported through pipes to your home or work place, it loses its magnetic charge. Treating water with magnetic fields simple restores the natural energy and balance that nature intended. Magnetized water has more hydroxyl (OH-) ions that form alkaline molecules which reduces the acidity. Normal tap water has a pH of about 7. Magnetized water is more alkaline and can have a pH as high as 9.2. Magnetizing water reduces the surface tension of the water making it feel softer. It is thinner, wetter, and more absorb able, so it is better able to penetrate cell walls and deliver the nutrients that it carries.

Health Benefits

Your body is over 70% water. All biological functions including circulation, digestion, absorption, and excretion depend on water. Water is required for blood, the lymphatic system, and healthy skin and muscles. It is well known among health professionals that when you are sick, the pH of your body is more acidic. Magnetized water, which is more alkaline, raises the pH of your body, which allows the body to get rid of the toxins. Bio-magnetized water is believed to be energy-building, activating, cleansing, and detoxifying. People have reported resolving bladder problems, recovering quickly from a stroke, alleviating arthritis pain, reducing blood pressure, and breaking up kidney and gall stones by drinking magnetic water. Scientific studies have proven that magnetized water has health benefits for animals. Therefore it seems reasonable that it should also be beneficial for humans. Reported health benefits of drinking magnetic water include:

o Magnetic water tastes sweeter and has more clarity.

o Magnetic water reduces acidity in the body and promotes a more alkaline pH.

o Magnetic water promotes healing of wounds and burns.

o Magnetic water has a therapeutic effect of digestive, nervous, and urinary systems.

o Magnetic water can be beneficial for asthma, fevers, colds, coughs, bronchitis, and sore throats.

o Magnetic water can be beneficial for menstrual and menopause discomfort.

o Magnetic water revitalized the body.

o Magnetic water has a positive effect on the autonomic nervous system.

o Magnetic water can help regulate the heart function and clear clogged arteries.

o Magnetic water is beneficial for kidney ailments (removal and prevention of stones), gout, obesity (it improves metabolic activity), and premature aging.

o Magnetic water helps relieve pain.

o Magnetic water infuses energy into the body, controls bacteria, and stimulates brain function.

o Magnetic water can help dissipate toxic deposits in the body's connective tissue.

o Magnetic water can regulate blood pressure (high or low).

o Magnetic water can be used to wash and disinfect external cuts and scrapes.

o Magnetic water will remove the plaque on your teeth if you use it to brush your teeth, rinse your mouth, and drink.

o Magnetic water will make your hair softer and more manageable while using less shampoo when used to wash your hair.

o Magnetic water is ionic so it helps reset the charge on cell walls, thus promoting better circulation.

Pets

Your pets will enjoy many of the same benefits from bio-magnetic water that you do. They will drink more water, have more energy, and feel younger and healthier. A friend was giving her dogs magnetic water. When she moved, she temporarily had to give them tap water. After a few days, they began scratching all the time. When she started them back on bio-magnetic water, the scratching stopped almost completely.

Plants

Bio-Magnetized water will help your plants grow stronger, greener, and larger. In one study seedlings' germination rates were 68 % with bio-magnetized water, while with non-magnetized water only 8% germinated. In another study, Texas A&M researchers found that squash weighed 24% more when it was grown with magnetized water vs. non-magnetized water. Bio-magnetic water is more solvent and has a lower surface tension, so nutrients in the water are absorbed more readily. Thus you get a healthier plant while using less fertilizer.

Other Fluids & Uses

Almost any fluid can be magnetized. Using Bio-Magnetic Water will drastically improve the taste of coffee, tea, and foods. Foods and beverages made using magnetic water will acquire the same healing powers as bio-magnetic water. Cosmetics, facial and skin products function a lot better when magnetized. Magnetized milk will give vigor and vitality to the weak and exhausted person. Magnetized milk has been proven useful for recuperating and enhancing sexual power. When fruit juices are treated with bio-magnets, they become more refreshing and give more nourishment. Beer can be magnetized to give better effect. Magnetized olive oil can be very rewarding in the treatment of gout and rheumatism.

Use bio-magnetic water to make your coffee and after a month or two the inside of your coffee maker will look like new. The bio-magnetic water will remove the scale build-up in your coffee maker.

How to make Bio-Magnetic Water

Making Bio-magnetic water is quite simple: just place a glass or container filled with water on a magnetic pad. Never use a metal container. You want to use a container that has a flat bottom without any raised edges. You want the bottom of the container touching the magnet pad. How long you need to leave the water on the magnet will depend on how much water you have. I usually use a gallon milk container and leave it on the pad for 4-6 hours or longer. It won't hurt to leave it there longer, you can even just leave the container on the pad and refill it as you use the water. The water will stay magnetized for several days after you take it off the magnet.

Summary

There is a long history of the use of magnets to improve the quality and health benefits of water. Many countries have been using magnetic water for patients with digestive, urinary, and nervous problems, for pain, swelling, and many other ailments. Whether all of the claims are true or false remains to be tested by science. However, Magnetic Therapy has been accepted by many for the relief of pain. It is now accepted that each of our cells possess a small magnetic field and that water can be magnetized. Then, the logical conclusion is that magnetic water has the ability to affect our cells and help our body perform as it was meant. There is much evidence that bio-magnetic water is beneficial and none that it can be harmful.

Visit our website for more information about Bio-Magnetic Therapy and Bio-Magnetic water.

Janet Forsythe of Forsythe & Associates is a scientist and has been involved in alternative, natural therapy for many years. Our web site http://www.bio-magnetictherapy.com deals with Magnetic Therapy Products and has several articles about the subject.

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Water - Drugs In Our Drinking Water

Water, Water, Water The number one killer in the United States is not cancer or heart disease. It is dehydration. The Earth is 70-80% water, and our composition is the same. Our brains are 80% water and cannot transmit electrical impulses without the conductivity of water. Because we are energy, electro-mechanical-biological and chemical beings, we depend on water to conduct every function, every nerve impulse, every muscle movement. Since the early fifties, Americans have changed their drinking habits and the Earth's aquifers have become more polluted with herbicide, pesticide, pharmaceutical and waste runoff. Chlorine, added to most municipal water supplies as a disinfectant, hardens arteries, destroys proteins in the body, irritates skin and sinus conditions, and aggravates asthma, allergies, and respiratory problems. Chloroform, a powerful by-product of chlorination, causes excessive free radical formation (accelerated aging), mutation of normal cells, and cholesterol oxidation. It is a known carcinogen! DCA (Dichloro acidic acid) is a chlorine by-product. It alters cholesterol metabolism, and has been shown to cause liver cancer in lab animals. MX (Another chlorinated acid), is known to cause genetic mutation, and has been found in all chlorinated water for which it was tested. Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOC's) are another group of contaminants that may be found in drinking water supplies across the nation. VOC's are those organic chemicals (pesticides, herbicides, and other chemicals). that are "readily vaporizable at a relatively low temperature, with no visible characteristics, smell, or taste You have to test for them to find them VOC's can cause cancer: kidney, liver, and brain damage: and damage to the nervous, reproductive, and immune systems. Fluoride. Massive research studies have been done on fluoride and fluoride compounds and by-products, both in the U.S. and in Europe and Canada. 98% of the European community banned the use of fluoride more than fifty years ago because of it's negative affect on neurological body systems and probable connection to increased osteoporosis and hip fractures. The studies also show that fluoride does NOT prevent tooth decay. Fluoride is actually a by-product of aluminum. If I were a major corporation who manufactured aluminum and needed to dump the by-product without penalty, I would devise a way to legally dump the product, make money by its capture, and promote it as being beneficial in one way or another. If I was really smart, I'd make sure I only funded a few studies that couldn't prove any real harm of my product, and lobby to discontinue any further study. "In my opinion, the evidence that fluoridation is more harmful than beneficial is now overwhelming and policy makers who avoid thoroughly reviewing recent data before introducing new fluoridation schemes do so at risk of future litigation," writes Dr.Hardy Limeback, Ph.D., D.D.S Dr. Limeback was one of the 12 scientists who served on the National Academy of Sciences panel that issued the 2006 report, "Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Scientific Review of the EPA's Standards." Dr. Limeback is a dentist, researcher and an associate professor of dentistry and head of the preventive dentistry program at the University of Toronto. The "crisis" of dental decay in the U.S. often mentioned is the result, to a major extent, of sugar abuse, especially soda pop. A 2005 report by Jacobsen of the Center for Science in the Public Interest said that U.S. children consume 40 to 44 percent of their daily refined sugar in the form of soft drinks. Since most soft drinks are themselves fluoridated, the small amount of fluoride is obviously not helping. The Eleven best reasons for clean water filtration: - 1. There are 35,000 registered pesticides containing 600 chemical compounds. Yet municipal water systems are only required to test for six (6). Many of these chemicals are known to cause birth defects, nerve damage, sterility, and cancer. (ABC News). 2. - The World Health organization estimates 75% to 80% of cancer may originate in our water and environment. (Forever Living). 3. - The General Accounting Office reports that 20% of the nation's 65,000 community systems are unable to meet minimum standards set by the Safe Drinking Water Act. (Readers Digest). 4. - A recent government study found that more than 25% of all large U.S. public water systems contain traces of one or more toxic substances...public water systems do not test for the carcinogens and other dangerous chemicals that are being found. (Wall Street Journal). 5. -One federal study found 87% of the conventional sewage plants discharging excess pollutants. Even when the plants work well, they can't remove much nitrate, heavy metals, or pesticides. (Prevention Magazine). 6. - In 1982 alone, there were 70,000 violations of drinking water standards by municipal water systems. And how many more have we had since then? (Readers Digest). 7. - EPA revealed that dangerous chemicals are leaking out of as many as 16,000 landfills throughout the U.S., percolation down through layers of soil into the vast underground water reservoirs called aquifers. (Discover Magazine). 8. - Trihalomethanes are created when chlorine reacts with decaying organic matter in the water. This group of four organic halides contaminates 90% of this country's drinking water. All four compounds including chloroform, were banned as an anesthetic in 1976, and are either known or suspected of causing cancer. (Consumer Reports). 9. - Today a new specter looms over our reservoirs: cancer. There's considerable speculation that the rise in cancer deaths, now 20% for the nation as a whole, many be due in part to the pesticides, fertilizers and industrial wastes that increasingly find their way into our water supplies. (Readers Digest). 10. - Despite improvements in both public and private water treatment practices, there are still harmful chemicals in 90% of the water we consume. (New Shelter Magazine) 11.-1,268,000 new cancer cases will be diagnosed this year in the U.S. (July 12, 2002 American Cancer Society. We have become a nation that relies on soda, coffee, tea, and alcohol for our liquids, rather than two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen, water. We don't like the way water tastes because the fifties gave us chlorinated water or salt based filters, so we look for anything that tastes better to drink, or we don't drink at all. The phosphorous in carbonated drinks attacks cell walls and eventually destroys the cell. Colon cancer and liver disease are direct results of this cellular destruction. The colon uses hydration and dehydration to eliminate waste and cannot function without the essential properties of water. If the colon is sick, the body is sick. The liver tries to filter the leaking waste and eventually becomes full of sludge, no longer able to supply clean and nourished blood to our lungs, heart, and other organs. Coffee and teas are just as dangerous to our bodies. They are diuretics, water eliminators, and can also leech calcium from our bones. Calcium not only keeps our bones strong, but also keeps us calm and relaxed. When we drink coffee, the loss of calcium alerts the adrenal glands, which go into high gear to try to keep us alive. Eventually, the adrenals tire and the rest of our endocrine system tries to take over. Now we have adrenal exhaustion, Epstein-Barr syndrome, thyroid and hormone imbalances, and a host of chain-reaction diseases. Tooth decay and diabetes are direct results of sugary drinks, along with obesity and ADHD, yet we feed our children anything and everything except good water. It boils down to, (excuse the pun), a battle between hydration and dehydration, the later being the most prevalent cause of death in the United States. When I am asked or grilled about water, one of the most consistent arguments is that all of our food and beverages contain water, so we must be getting enough of it. Well, go to the desert and watch what happens to the plants and animals that manage to survive there. The plants have adapted to arid conditions and hold any water they can absorb. If you have ever had swollen feet or ankles, your body was doing the same thing, holding any water you've absorbed so you can survive. During a desert rainstorm, much of the water drains away or is absorbed by the sand. Your body reacts similarly if you suddenly hydrate it after sustained dryness and heat. The water doesn't have time to reach your cells and penetrate the cell walls, causing edema, nausea, and a negative body reaction. Floods in the body are the same as they are on Earth. Stagnated chemicals and waste form more sludge and our tissues can't handle the onslaught of debris. If the desert analogy doesn't work for you, experiment with your garden or houseplants. They won't grow if you use coffee, beer, tea, or soft drinks to hydrate them. Then, of course, we have the additional problem of chemical absorption during showers and baths, and chlorine gases released during cooking. Your skin is the largest organ, and not only acts as a barrier to germs and disease, but also allows for the absorption of beneficial oxygen, vitamin D from the sun, and water. You absorb more chemicals in a month of showers than you would drinking eight 8 ounce glasses of water a day for five years. Boiling water, a common practice after storms that affect water quality, releases chloroform, chloramines, and other chemical by-products into the air that are not only inhaled, but are also absorbed into dry wall, furniture, clothes, and other fabric. The Ph level in your water is also an important factor in keeping you healthy. The body needs to balance itself at a minimum Ph level of 7.4 - 8. Even if we eat a fairly alkaline diet, the acidic levels of our drinking water can erase the benefits. Disease lives in acid, and cannot survive in an alkaline environment. Check your water from several taps using a pool kit. If it's not at an acceptable level, contact your water department and find out why. As water departments can vary which chemicals and additives they use on a daily basis, it's best to check over a three day period, and then check again the following week. Also, immediately after a rainstorm is a good time to check for added chemicals and acidity. Suddenly we are hearing about drugs in our drinking water. Not so sudden for those of us who study water. The problem with the "new" discovery is that investigators are still limited in their understanding and scope. The drugs in our water aren't just coming from people emptying prescription bottles into the toilet. They are coming from our bodies. Our drug-saturated bodies are doing the best they can to dispose of toxic waste, and then we drink them, and bathe in them. Healthcare problems in America are serious. We need serious leadership. We don't need new ways to charge people for visiting doctors and receiving more drugs. We don't need new ways to make sure children receive more drugs. We need drug education and government responsibility for the "mess" they've caused. We need to disband the FDA and EPA and start over. We need prevention. Much of that, besides not being a drug-dependent society to begin with, starts with water. Good water is filtered the same way the Earth filters water, through several layers of carbon and granite with electrical shocks that mimic the ionizing effect of lightning. Refrigerator filters, especially those that are never cleaned, and the small filters on water taps remove only the odors and a small amount of chlorine. Bottled water is fairly good, depending on its source, but we once again pollute the environment with millions of plastic bottles. We also have to be aware that the bottles are, in most cases, cleaned with chlorine products, and the chlorine seeps from the plastic back into the water. The billion dollar bottled water industry need to offset their financial gains with solutions to environmental problems. As a child, I spent hours collecting returnable glass bottles for 2 cents each. The incentive to return plastic bottles could keep them from going into landfills. Another solution would be glass returnable bottles, which would stop the chlorination seepage. Distilled water, though free of most contaminants, is dead water, and should only be used for specific maladies or in rotation with mineral or spring water. There are companies that provide full-house water systems or apartment sized systems that can supply us with pure water, but even these need to be researched. Many use salt, a corrosive agent that not only destroys plumbing, but also actually can add salt to your diet. Others use simple carbon filters that only minimally remove sediment and some chlorine. Look for systems that have several layers including Centaur carbon, KDF, and granite to be sure you've removed all of the chemicals and sediment. We are water, and we need to recognize the importance of this vital nutrient, find ways to incorporate it in our daily routines, and help each other relearn to eat, drink, and be merry. Rayna Gangi is a holistic health consultant, multi-state licensed massage therapist, registered reflexologist, author and teacher.

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Production Of Iron And Aluminum, Water, Hydrogen, Alkaline Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, And Sodium

Production of Iron and Aluminum

Another use of electrolysis is the purification of pure metals from their ores. A supply of electrical current can work to spark an oxidation or reduction process, so that materials can be extracted from their electrolytic solutions, or from a mix of molten metals. In this way, materials can be won in their pure form. Besides the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, an electrolysis can be performed on a molten mass of metals. Technically, electrolysis processes can be used to purify sodium and aluminum from a molten mass.

Aluminum is one of the most prevalent metals on Earth. Yet it is a complicated process to win pure aluminum from its mixtures. Crude aluminum is found in nature most often as a component of bauxite.

The process of purifying aluminum can be divided into two phases.

Starting with bauxite, we use the Bayer process to gain aluminum in the following manner: Bauxite is allowed to react with sodium hydroxide, a base. This leads to the release of aluminum into solution in the form of aluminum hydroxide. After filtration, the aluminum is separated from the hydroxide ions as aluminum hydroxde. This is filtered off, and when heated, calcination takes place. The result is the production of an aluminum oxide compound.

This aluminum-containing product is put under electrolysis, forming pure aluminum and hydrogen. The electrolysis of a stream of molten metal means that the metal will be separated from a molten mixture of salts of the metal at high electrical current but low voltage.

Iron is known as a transition metal found in the fourth period of the periodic table. In its pure form, it is white, relatively soft and magnetic. In nature, it is usually found combined with other atoms, in compounds. Hematite is one of is most important ores. Iron is separated from its ores in large ovens.

In order to win iron, industrial furnaces are necessary, as are an iron ore, limestone and carbon. The necessary materials are placed in a large oven. The oven has a ventilation system to allow air to circulate. The heating of limestone results in the creation of a calcium oxide.

1. The oxygen in the air reacts with carbon, producing carbon dioxide.

2. At very high temperatures, this carbon dioxide reacts with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide.

3. Carbon monoxide reduces iron in the ore to pure iron, as in the reaction Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2 Fe + 3CO2

The gases produced are called exhaust gases and are released through the chimney of the industrial furnace.

The impurities, called slag, are lighter than the iron produced, so they can be separated, from the bottom to the surface of the iron. In the lower part of the industrial furnace, crude iron is produced. Crude iron contains around 2-5% carbon and 3-4% slag. In this state, iron can be used for casting or for forging. Otherwise, it is possible to use further chemical processes to produce steel.

Steel is made of iron and a certain amount of carbon, not to exceed 1.5% of the total. Carbon makes steel harder, while lowering its malleability. Other metalloids may also be added in, so that steel can attain its usual properties. For example, steel can contain as much as 11-14% chromium.

According to the latest steel production processes, slag additives and scrap iron are added to the molten mass of crude iron. The addition of oxygen works to improve the oxidation of impurities and helps to clean up the steel.

The Composition of Air and its Pollutants

No matter where we are on our planet, the Earth, we are surrounded by the atmosphere, or air. Air, however, should not be confused with oxygen. Oxygen is just one of the components of air. There are others. Air is composed of the following:

77.1% nitrogen

20.8% oxygen

1.1% water vapor

0.9% argon

0.1% other gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide, noble gases...)

The proportions of these gases does not usually change in any significant manner, although the concentration of carbon dioxide or sulfide compounds in the air above big cities and industrial centres can increase dramatically in a rather short period of time.

Pollution of the Atmosphere

We human beings have a greater influence on the environment we live in than any other organism that has walked this Earth in all its long history. It is true that natural systems can lead to the pollution of the Earth's atmosphere, of course. For example, the breakdown of organic matter can lead to the release of some poisonous gases into the atmosphere. Plants can breakdown these pollutants, producing oxygen from the poisonous carbon dioxide.

But the plant world is not capable of breaking down and transforming all of the pollutants which are being produced today. In addition, the world's forests are being destroyed in order to obtain the large spaces needed for a demanding, growing human population whose needs are growing, too. With a quickly growing population on the Earth, more and more harmful pollutants are being produced. As of now, there is no way known to neutralise or get rid of these pollutants.

The only sure way to protect the environment is to develop chemistry and its processes in such a way that the consumer goods and processes that release harmful pollutants into the air are replaced by other, less harmful ones to the environment. For example, in the last few years, freon, which was used as an ingredient in sprays and as a refrigerant in refrigerators, has been replaced, because it was found to harm the ozone layer.

No solution has yet been found to the problem of the greenhouse effect. The sun's rays are reflected off of the Earth, only to return to the atmosphere. Gases in the atmosphere, first and foremost carbon dioxide, act as a greenhouse to hold some of that heat in the Earth's atmosphere. Of course, it should be pointed out that the greenhouse effect, in a more natural setting, is a natural phenomenon which renders life on Earth possible.

In the 20th century, however, the oxidation of carbon dioxide has risen dramatically, thanks to the burning of fossil fuels (organic: coal, oil, natural gas) and the burning of the rain forests. This artificial and rapid increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air, some scientists have concluded, could raise the Earth's average temperature. This phenomenon is called global warming. If the Earth's average temperature does continue to rise as it has done in the last few decades, the polar ice caps could melt. Complete melting of both polar ice caps would raise sea level a few hundred metres, and reduce humanity's, and the Earth's, livable habitat in a fundamental way. The end result could be the destruction of many habitable landscapes, as well as the environment of the plants and animals which still inhabit the Earth.

Water, Hydrogen

Pure water is composed of just two atoms, oxygen and hydrogen, one atom of the former, two of the latter. Water is colorless, but it can appear as a blue liquid at its surface. At normal air pressure, water freezes at 0° C. Its boiling point is 100° C. The density of liquid water is at its highest value at 4° C. For that reason, ice floats on water, and water freezes at its surface first. When frozen, water, now ice, increases its volume by around 9% . Because of this property, leaving water in some type of container on a cold day could lead to that container breaking or cracking.

Water is the most common compound found on Earth, covering 71% of its surface. The atmosphere is made up of 4% water vapour. Most living organisms are composed of about 60-70% water, and some living organisms are composed of up to 98% water (seaweed). Water is never found in its pure form in nature. It always contains some dust or other chemical impurities. Water which, after boiling the liquid away leaves more than 1 g of residue, is considered to be freshwater. If, however, after boiling away the liquid portion of water more than 1 g of residue is present, this water is considered to be saltwater. Of the Earth's water, around 95% is saltwater (after boiling off of water portion more than 1 g of residue remains).

The hardness of water can be determined. This property depends on the amount of calcium, magnesium and other ions dissolved in the water. When water is distilled, these ions are removed, and the water, more pure than usual, can be used in chemistry and medicine. The distillation process involves boiling off the water. The water's impurities do not boil off if they have a higher boiling point than water, instead remaining in the original vessel which contained the water. The water vapour then condenses, producing liquid water which is now purified. Neither people nor other living organisms should drink distilled water, however. This would cause them problems. Drinking water contains minerals that living organisms need. It should, of course, be free of harmful bacteria.

Water has another chemically important characteristic. Water molecules can hydrogen bond with each other. This type of bonding between oxygen and the hydrogens in another molecule of water is not the type of bond in which electrons are shared. Oxygen attracts the negatively charged electrons more strongly than hydrogen, giving oxygen a partial negative charge and hydrogen a partially positive charge. Electrostatic forces then take over. The water molecules align themselves in a way which has the oxygen atom in one water molecule lined up next to the hydrogen atoms in another molecule. This creates an electrostatic force between two water molecules. A structure of alternating charges is thus created. These weak forces between water molecules are the basis of surface tension. Hydrogen bonds are also responsible for water's relatively high melting and boiling points.

Hydrogen is found in almost all compounds, whether they are inorganic or organic. It is by far the most common element in the universe. In its elementary form, it is a colourless, odourless flammable gas. It burns with a blue flame.

Uses of Water

Water is important for living organisms as a transport mechanism for needed materials including gases, and to keep up needed pressure in cells. In plants, water is an important component of photosynthesis. It is also an important solvent, refrigerant and transport mechanism in everyday life. It is especially important in chemistry. Many materials could not be studied without the help of water, because of these materials' reactivity in water. Salts, acids and bases are almost always studied as solutions in water.

When preparing water as the product of a chemical reaction, it is necessary to realise what purpose the water is going to be used for. Chemical and physical processes can be used to produce for example drinking water from surface or underground water, or to produce water which does not contain any iron or manganese. Or, soft water can be made, to be used in breweries, paint factories and textile factories. The most important processes are separation, filtration and distillation. Using these processes, unwanted components of water can be separated.

The Water Chain on Earth

Water movement around the Earth can be described exactly using water chains. From bodies of water such as lakes and oceans, from land, from living organisms, even from rain, water is constantly evaporating. After cooling in the highest reaches of the atmosphere, this water falls to the Earth again, as precipitation, onto dry ground but also into rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. Then, plants use some of the water which has fallen as rain. The rest of the water is transferred from dry ground to the Earth's rivers, seas and oceans.

Water Pollution

Another environmental problem is caused by water pollution. The ever increasing use of foreign materials which do not occur naturally leads to water pollution. These foreign materials, also called pollutants, get into our water through canalisation and trash. The processes are varied, the result the same: water pollution. Water which escapes from waste dumps, and acid rain, can cause water sources to become polluted. Living organisms are capable of getting rid of a number of harmful materials on their own, as long as they occur in relatively small amounts, and the influx into their bodies is slow. Otherwise, if a harmful concentration of pollutants is infused into a living organism, that organism can die, especially if it lives in or near polluted water. Even those organisms which are capable of removing harmful pollutants from their bodies can be threatened if a high concentration of pollutant is introduced. Laws and conscientious behaviour are helping to avoid a catastrophe in the oceans and other water sources of the world. At least, we are trying to limit the scope of individual catastrophes. Chemistry, of course, has its own important role to play in the battle.

Alkaline Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, Sodium

The alkaline metals include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and the radioactive francium. All of these elements are metals. All have one electron in their outermost shell. They are members of the first main group in the periodic table, IA.

Alkaline metals do not appear in nature in the elemental state, but rather always as compounds. All of the elements in the alkaline metal group have similar characteristics which are derived from their similar electron configuration. Like all elements in the same group, they share many of the same properties. These common group properties are not exactly the same from element to element, however. They change with increasing atomic mass (for example, hardness, burning temperature, melting and boiling point). The high reactivity of the alkaline metals is the result of their having one electron in their outermost shell. The reaction of one of these, or its oxide as the case may be, results in the formation of a hydroxide, a compound which has basic character.

When atoms react, the most important factor in how they behave is the number of electrons in their outer shell. These electrons are called valence electrons. They can form chemical bonds with other atoms. When this happens, an electron must be transferred, that is, donated or accepted, to or from the outermost electron shell of another atom. Alkaline metals have only one valence electron, and they always donate this one electron when they form chemical bonds. For this reason, all elements in this group can attain an oxidation state of +1, meaning that they have given up their one electron.

The elements of the second main group of the periodic table are called the alkaline earth metals. Their chemical properties are also similar to each other, and their physical properties are based on a few basic laws. Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium are all Group IIA elements. They all have two electrons in their outermost electron shell. For this reason, they are not as reactive as the elements of Group IA. They are all metals.

The most important alkaline earth metal is sodium. This element has great significance in both the compounds which it naturally occurs in, and those which can be made synthetically. Sodium is a component of table salt, and of the dough which makes bread. It is a component of many strong bases and of soap, to mention just a few.

Formation of Table Salt

When two atoms of sodium join with one molecule of chlorine (Cl2), the one lone electron in sodium's outermost electron shell is transferred to one chlorine atom. The chlorine atoms separate from one another, then join with one atom of sodium each to form two new molecules of sodium chloride, which crystallise, in the reaction 2Na + Cl2® 2NaCl. When the sodium atom's electron is transferred, a positively charged sodium ion (cation) is formed. When chlorine captures that transferred electron, a negatively charged chlorine ion (anion) is formed. These are mutually attracted to each other. The formation of these ions allows both atoms (now ions) to reach a stable electron configuration in their outer shells, a noble gas configuration.

Electron arrangement can be thought of as an octet, as formulated by G.N. Lewis and W. Kossel. According to this theory, electrons are donated and accepted in such a way so that the atoms they belong to reach a noble gas configuration, one in which an octet of electrons is present in the valence shell of an atom. This is the energetically most advantageous state for any element. Often, reactions which lead to this electron configuration can be quite violent in nature. The release of reaction heat is one of the results of the reaction of sodium ions with chloride ions. Molecules of sodium chloride are regularly arranged in an ionic lattice. The crystals which are produced are cubic.

Halogens

The halogen group of elements

Elements in this group include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At) - an element which is not naturally occurring and can be prepared only in the laboratory. Because these elements have seven electrons in their outermost shell, they are members of the main group VIIA. They all share similar characteristics. In nature, halogens are found mostly as the negative components of salts. They are non-metals. Halogens are very reactive. They react with hydrogen to form a hydrogen-halogen compound. Oxides (compounds containing oxygen) are acidic in character. Halogens join with metals to form ionic bonds. The properties of halogens differ as a function of increasing atomic mass. The state of matter of individual group members changes from gaseous (flourine and chlorine) to solid (iodine and astatine). In the gaseous form, halogens always form two atom molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2). With increasing atomic mass, melting and boiling point rise, as does density. Solubility in water decreases as atomic mass grows.

Halogens often occur in nature bonded in salts. From these salts, pure halogen elements can be produced. These pure elements have many uses, first and foremost as raw materials in the chemical industry. They are ingredients in fertilisers, and they are used in medicine. These elements are important trace elements for living organisms (fluorine as an ingredient in toothpaste and bones). In addition, halogens are significant raw materials for the production of artificial substances (fluorine, chlorine). Pure crystals of fluorine can be used in the semiconductor industry. Iodine containing salts are used in some medicines and grocery products. Chlorine is often used to treat water, both drinking water and water for other uses.

Halides

Halides (hals = Greek for salt, gen = Greek tribal word for produce) are produced by the synthesis of metals and halogens. If glowing iron comes into contact with a copper wire coated with chlorine, these elements react violently to produce an iron chloride or copper chloride compound. Halides are salts. The salts of bromine are called bromides, the salts of chlorine chlorides (fluorides, iodides). When halides are formed, electrons are transferred between individual atoms. Thus, ions are formed which have the characteristic ionic lattice. The ions of the various halogens have the same arrangement as the ionic lattice of sodium chloride. For this reason, this typical structure is called the sodium chloride

ionic lattice. Ionic lattices produce ionic crystals. The formula NaCl describes the smallest building block of an ionic lattice. We call this crystal a unit lattice.

Halides are easily soluble in water and other polar solvents (those which have polarly arranged molecules). When halogens are dissolved, electrically charged ions are released into solution. If we dissolve sodium chloride in water, freely moving positively charged ions of sodium (cations) and negatively charged ions of chlorine (anions) are released into solution. Ions are carriers of charge, so ionic solutions are able to conduct an electrical current. When solid halides are heated and melt, they move to the liquid state of matter, called a molten melt. Even these molten melts can conduct an electrical current.

Materials whose makeup is difficult to determine are investigated through spectroscopy. The principle of using a mass spectroscope is that a gaseous sample of some material is placed in a tube, where it is bombarded with electrons. The material is ionised (charged), and ions move to the end of the tube, where an oppositely charged electrode is placed. A magnetic field is created in the tube, and ions are separated according to their mass. On a detection screen, these ions are divided in such a way depending on their mass.

This text was drawn from the Production of Iron and Aluminum; Water, Hydrogen; Alkaline Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, Sodium page, where you will find explanatory outlinks.
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Translated by KENAX Translation Service.

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Production of Iron and Aluminum

Another use of electrolysis is the purification of pure metals from their ores. A supply of electrical current can work to spark an oxidation or reduction process, so that materials can be extracted from their electrolytic solutions, or from a mix of molten metals. In this way, materials can be won in their pure form. Besides the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, an electrolysis can be performed on a molten mass of metals. Technically, electrolysis processes can be used to purify sodium and aluminum from a molten mass.

Aluminum is one of the most prevalent metals on Earth. Yet it is a complicated process to win pure aluminum from its mixtures. Crude aluminum is found in nature most often as a component of bauxite.

The process of purifying aluminum can be divided into two phases.

Starting with bauxite, we use the Bayer process to gain aluminum in the following manner: Bauxite is allowed to react with sodium hydroxide, a base. This leads to the release of aluminum into solution in the form of aluminum hydroxide. After filtration, the aluminum is separated from the hydroxide ions as aluminum hydroxde. This is filtered off, and when heated, calcination takes place. The result is the production of an aluminum oxide compound.

This aluminum-containing product is put under electrolysis, forming pure aluminum and hydrogen. The electrolysis of a stream of molten metal means that the metal will be separated from a molten mixture of salts of the metal at high electrical current but low voltage.

Iron is known as a transition metal found in the fourth period of the periodic table. In its pure form, it is white, relatively soft and magnetic. In nature, it is usually found combined with other atoms, in compounds. Hematite is one of is most important ores. Iron is separated from its ores in large ovens.

In order to win iron, industrial furnaces are necessary, as are an iron ore, limestone and carbon. The necessary materials are placed in a large oven. The oven has a ventilation system to allow air to circulate. The heating of limestone results in the creation of a calcium oxide.

1. The oxygen in the air reacts with carbon, producing carbon dioxide.

2. At very high temperatures, this carbon dioxide reacts with oxygen to produce carbon monoxide.

3. Carbon monoxide reduces iron in the ore to pure iron, as in the reaction Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2 Fe + 3CO2

The gases produced are called exhaust gases and are released through the chimney of the industrial furnace.

The impurities, called slag, are lighter than the iron produced, so they can be separated, from the bottom to the surface of the iron. In the lower part of the industrial furnace, crude iron is produced. Crude iron contains around 2-5% carbon and 3-4% slag. In this state, iron can be used for casting or for forging. Otherwise, it is possible to use further chemical processes to produce steel.

Steel is made of iron and a certain amount of carbon, not to exceed 1.5% of the total. Carbon makes steel harder, while lowering its malleability. Other metalloids may also be added in, so that steel can attain its usual properties. For example, steel can contain as much as 11-14% chromium.

According to the latest steel production processes, slag additives and scrap iron are added to the molten mass of crude iron. The addition of oxygen works to improve the oxidation of impurities and helps to clean up the steel.

The Composition of Air and its Pollutants

No matter where we are on our planet, the Earth, we are surrounded by the atmosphere, or air. Air, however, should not be confused with oxygen. Oxygen is just one of the components of air. There are others. Air is composed of the following:

77.1% nitrogen

20.8% oxygen

1.1% water vapor

0.9% argon

0.1% other gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide, noble gases...)

The proportions of these gases does not usually change in any significant manner, although the concentration of carbon dioxide or sulfide compounds in the air above big cities and industrial centres can increase dramatically in a rather short period of time.

Pollution of the Atmosphere

We human beings have a greater influence on the environment we live in than any other organism that has walked this Earth in all its long history. It is true that natural systems can lead to the pollution of the Earth's atmosphere, of course. For example, the breakdown of organic matter can lead to the release of some poisonous gases into the atmosphere. Plants can breakdown these pollutants, producing oxygen from the poisonous carbon dioxide.

But the plant world is not capable of breaking down and transforming all of the pollutants which are being produced today. In addition, the world's forests are being destroyed in order to obtain the large spaces needed for a demanding, growing human population whose needs are growing, too. With a quickly growing population on the Earth, more and more harmful pollutants are being produced. As of now, there is no way known to neutralise or get rid of these pollutants.

The only sure way to protect the environment is to develop chemistry and its processes in such a way that the consumer goods and processes that release harmful pollutants into the air are replaced by other, less harmful ones to the environment. For example, in the last few years, freon, which was used as an ingredient in sprays and as a refrigerant in refrigerators, has been replaced, because it was found to harm the ozone layer.

No solution has yet been found to the problem of the greenhouse effect. The sun's rays are reflected off of the Earth, only to return to the atmosphere. Gases in the atmosphere, first and foremost carbon dioxide, act as a greenhouse to hold some of that heat in the Earth's atmosphere. Of course, it should be pointed out that the greenhouse effect, in a more natural setting, is a natural phenomenon which renders life on Earth possible.

In the 20th century, however, the oxidation of carbon dioxide has risen dramatically, thanks to the burning of fossil fuels (organic: coal, oil, natural gas) and the burning of the rain forests. This artificial and rapid increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air, some scientists have concluded, could raise the Earth's average temperature. This phenomenon is called global warming. If the Earth's average temperature does continue to rise as it has done in the last few decades, the polar ice caps could melt. Complete melting of both polar ice caps would raise sea level a few hundred metres, and reduce humanity's, and the Earth's, livable habitat in a fundamental way. The end result could be the destruction of many habitable landscapes, as well as the environment of the plants and animals which still inhabit the Earth.

Water, Hydrogen

Pure water is composed of just two atoms, oxygen and hydrogen, one atom of the former, two of the latter. Water is colorless, but it can appear as a blue liquid at its surface. At normal air pressure, water freezes at 0° C. Its boiling point is 100° C. The density of liquid water is at its highest value at 4° C. For that reason, ice floats on water, and water freezes at its surface first. When frozen, water, now ice, increases its volume by around 9% . Because of this property, leaving water in some type of container on a cold day could lead to that container breaking or cracking.

Water is the most common compound found on Earth, covering 71% of its surface. The atmosphere is made up of 4% water vapour. Most living organisms are composed of about 60-70% water, and some living organisms are composed of up to 98% water (seaweed). Water is never found in its pure form in nature. It always contains some dust or other chemical impurities. Water which, after boiling the liquid away leaves more than 1 g of residue, is considered to be freshwater. If, however, after boiling away the liquid portion of water more than 1 g of residue is present, this water is considered to be saltwater. Of the Earth's water, around 95% is saltwater (after boiling off of water portion more than 1 g of residue remains).

The hardness of water can be determined. This property depends on the amount of calcium, magnesium and other ions dissolved in the water. When water is distilled, these ions are removed, and the water, more pure than usual, can be used in chemistry and medicine. The distillation process involves boiling off the water. The water's impurities do not boil off if they have a higher boiling point than water, instead remaining in the original vessel which contained the water. The water vapour then condenses, producing liquid water which is now purified. Neither people nor other living organisms should drink distilled water, however. This would cause them problems. Drinking water contains minerals that living organisms need. It should, of course, be free of harmful bacteria.

Water has another chemically important characteristic. Water molecules can hydrogen bond with each other. This type of bonding between oxygen and the hydrogens in another molecule of water is not the type of bond in which electrons are shared. Oxygen attracts the negatively charged electrons more strongly than hydrogen, giving oxygen a partial negative charge and hydrogen a partially positive charge. Electrostatic forces then take over. The water molecules align themselves in a way which has the oxygen atom in one water molecule lined up next to the hydrogen atoms in another molecule. This creates an electrostatic force between two water molecules. A structure of alternating charges is thus created. These weak forces between water molecules are the basis of surface tension. Hydrogen bonds are also responsible for water's relatively high melting and boiling points.

Hydrogen is found in almost all compounds, whether they are inorganic or organic. It is by far the most common element in the universe. In its elementary form, it is a colourless, odourless flammable gas. It burns with a blue flame.

Uses of Water

Water is important for living organisms as a transport mechanism for needed materials including gases, and to keep up needed pressure in cells. In plants, water is an important component of photosynthesis. It is also an important solvent, refrigerant and transport mechanism in everyday life. It is especially important in chemistry. Many materials could not be studied without the help of water, because of these materials' reactivity in water. Salts, acids and bases are almost always studied as solutions in water.

When preparing water as the product of a chemical reaction, it is necessary to realise what purpose the water is going to be used for. Chemical and physical processes can be used to produce for example drinking water from surface or underground water, or to produce water which does not contain any iron or manganese. Or, soft water can be made, to be used in breweries, paint factories and textile factories. The most important processes are separation, filtration and distillation. Using these processes, unwanted components of water can be separated.

The Water Chain on Earth

Water movement around the Earth can be described exactly using water chains. From bodies of water such as lakes and oceans, from land, from living organisms, even from rain, water is constantly evaporating. After cooling in the highest reaches of the atmosphere, this water falls to the Earth again, as precipitation, onto dry ground but also into rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. Then, plants use some of the water which has fallen as rain. The rest of the water is transferred from dry ground to the Earth's rivers, seas and oceans.

Water Pollution

Another environmental problem is caused by water pollution. The ever increasing use of foreign materials which do not occur naturally leads to water pollution. These foreign materials, also called pollutants, get into our water through canalisation and trash. The processes are varied, the result the same: water pollution. Water which escapes from waste dumps, and acid rain, can cause water sources to become polluted. Living organisms are capable of getting rid of a number of harmful materials on their own, as long as they occur in relatively small amounts, and the influx into their bodies is slow. Otherwise, if a harmful concentration of pollutants is infused into a living organism, that organism can die, especially if it lives in or near polluted water. Even those organisms which are capable of removing harmful pollutants from their bodies can be threatened if a high concentration of pollutant is introduced. Laws and conscientious behaviour are helping to avoid a catastrophe in the oceans and other water sources of the world. At least, we are trying to limit the scope of individual catastrophes. Chemistry, of course, has its own important role to play in the battle.

Alkaline Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, Sodium

The alkaline metals include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and the radioactive francium. All of these elements are metals. All have one electron in their outermost shell. They are members of the first main group in the periodic table, IA.

Alkaline metals do not appear in nature in the elemental state, but rather always as compounds. All of the elements in the alkaline metal group have similar characteristics which are derived from their similar electron configuration. Like all elements in the same group, they share many of the same properties. These common group properties are not exactly the same from element to element, however. They change with increasing atomic mass (for example, hardness, burning temperature, melting and boiling point). The high reactivity of the alkaline metals is the result of their having one electron in their outermost shell. The reaction of one of these, or its oxide as the case may be, results in the formation of a hydroxide, a compound which has basic character.

When atoms react, the most important factor in how they behave is the number of electrons in their outer shell. These electrons are called valence electrons. They can form chemical bonds with other atoms. When this happens, an electron must be transferred, that is, donated or accepted, to or from the outermost electron shell of another atom. Alkaline metals have only one valence electron, and they always donate this one electron when they form chemical bonds. For this reason, all elements in this group can attain an oxidation state of +1, meaning that they have given up their one electron.

The elements of the second main group of the periodic table are called the alkaline earth metals. Their chemical properties are also similar to each other, and their physical properties are based on a few basic laws. Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium are all Group IIA elements. They all have two electrons in their outermost electron shell. For this reason, they are not as reactive as the elements of Group IA. They are all metals.

The most important alkaline earth metal is sodium. This element has great significance in both the compounds which it naturally occurs in, and those which can be made synthetically. Sodium is a component of table salt, and of the dough which makes bread. It is a component of many strong bases and of soap, to mention just a few.

Formation of Table Salt

When two atoms of sodium join with one molecule of chlorine (Cl2), the one lone electron in sodium's outermost electron shell is transferred to one chlorine atom. The chlorine atoms separate from one another, then join with one atom of sodium each to form two new molecules of sodium chloride, which crystallise, in the reaction 2Na + Cl2® 2NaCl. When the sodium atom's electron is transferred, a positively charged sodium ion (cation) is formed. When chlorine captures that transferred electron, a negatively charged chlorine ion (anion) is formed. These are mutually attracted to each other. The formation of these ions allows both atoms (now ions) to reach a stable electron configuration in their outer shells, a noble gas configuration.

Electron arrangement can be thought of as an octet, as formulated by G.N. Lewis and W. Kossel. According to this theory, electrons are donated and accepted in such a way so that the atoms they belong to reach a noble gas configuration, one in which an octet of electrons is present in the valence shell of an atom. This is the energetically most advantageous state for any element. Often, reactions which lead to this electron configuration can be quite violent in nature. The release of reaction heat is one of the results of the reaction of sodium ions with chloride ions. Molecules of sodium chloride are regularly arranged in an ionic lattice. The crystals which are produced are cubic.

Halogens

The halogen group of elements

Elements in this group include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At) - an element which is not naturally occurring and can be prepared only in the laboratory. Because these elements have seven electrons in their outermost shell, they are members of the main group VIIA. They all share similar characteristics. In nature, halogens are found mostly as the negative components of salts. They are non-metals. Halogens are very reactive. They react with hydrogen to form a hydrogen-halogen compound. Oxides (compounds containing oxygen) are acidic in character. Halogens join with metals to form ionic bonds. The properties of halogens differ as a function of increasing atomic mass. The state of matter of individual group members changes from gaseous (flourine and chlorine) to solid (iodine and astatine). In the gaseous form, halogens always form two atom molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2). With increasing atomic mass, melting and boiling point rise, as does density. Solubility in water decreases as atomic mass grows.

Halogens often occur in nature bonded in salts. From these salts, pure halogen elements can be produced. These pure elements have many uses, first and foremost as raw materials in the chemical industry. They are ingredients in fertilisers, and they are used in medicine. These elements are important trace elements for living organisms (fluorine as an ingredient in toothpaste and bones). In addition, halogens are significant raw materials for the production of artificial substances (fluorine, chlorine). Pure crystals of fluorine can be used in the semiconductor industry. Iodine containing salts are used in some medicines and grocery products. Chlorine is often used to treat water, both drinking water and water for other uses.

Halides

Halides (hals = Greek for salt, gen = Greek tribal word for produce) are produced by the synthesis of metals and halogens. If glowing iron comes into contact with a copper wire coated with chlorine, these elements react violently to produce an iron chloride or copper chloride compound. Halides are salts. The salts of bromine are called bromides, the salts of chlorine chlorides (fluorides, iodides). When halides are formed, electrons are transferred between individual atoms. Thus, ions are formed which have the characteristic ionic lattice. The ions of the various halogens have the same arrangement as the ionic lattice of sodium chloride. For this reason, this typical structure is called the sodium chloride

ionic lattice. Ionic lattices produce ionic crystals. The formula NaCl describes the smallest building block of an ionic lattice. We call this crystal a unit lattice.

Halides are easily soluble in water and other polar solvents (those which have polarly arranged molecules). When halogens are dissolved, electrically charged ions are released into solution. If we dissolve sodium chloride in water, freely moving positively charged ions of sodium (cations) and negatively charged ions of chlorine (anions) are released into solution. Ions are carriers of charge, so ionic solutions are able to conduct an electrical current. When solid halides are heated and melt, they move to the liquid state of matter, called a molten melt. Even these molten melts can conduct an electrical current.

Materials whose makeup is difficult to determine are investigated through spectroscopy. The principle of using a mass spectroscope is that a gaseous sample of some material is placed in a tube, where it is bombarded with electrons. The material is ionised (charged), and ions move to the end of the tube, where an oppositely charged electrode is placed. A magnetic field is created in the tube, and ions are separated according to their mass. On a detection screen, these ions are divided in such a way depending on their mass.

This text was drawn from the Production of Iron and Aluminum; Water, Hydrogen; Alkaline Metals, Alkaline Earth Metals, Sodium page, where you will find explanatory outlinks.
The full Translation Resources
Translated by KENAX Translation Service.

Read More